Ethics of Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning Research Paper

Ethics of Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning - Research Paper Example These include aspects relating to safety of real human beings such that they will not pose risks and moral status of the devised machines in reasoning well as expected of person undertaking a given certain task (Bostrom, & Yudkowsky, 2011). In this case, Artificial Intelligence (AI) especially in the field of machines focuses on imparting devices relevant ethical principles or a certain procedures that will enable them discover as well as resolve dilemmas, which they might experience while undertaking their respective tasks. Hence, making them behave or function ethically with the aid of their complex programmed decision-making processes. This study seeks to analyze and present an in deep understanding, comparing of artificial intelligence in the field of machine learning and highlighting certain philosophical implications mostly used relating to human conduct, for instance, morals. Artificial general Intelligence Currently, machines owing to their complex advancements over years hav e resulted to tackling varied and even intricate tasks challenging to human beings. However, this breakthrough has not prompted professionals especially in the field of machines rest but even work more to rectify significant shortcomings evident in robots and similar devices (Bostrom, & Yudkowsky, 2011). ... This is because of their limited inherent Classical artificial intelligence whereby in their quest to equal humanity ought to embrace varied networks integrated in them (Muller, 2012). For instance, these include neural networks, universal algorithms, cognitive science, mathematical methods, emergence behavioral robotics, interactive devices besides others supposed to enhance refined capabilities (Muller, 2012). References Bostrom, N. & Yudkowsky, E. (2011). Ethics of Artificial Intelligence. Retrieved on 13Th October 2013 from Grodzinsky, F. S., Miller, K. W., & Wolf, M. J. (2008). The ethics of designing artificial agents. Ethics and Information Technology, 10(2-3), 115-121. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10676-008-9163-9. Muller, V. (2012). Introduction: Philosophy and Theory of Artificial Intelligence. Minds & Machines. pp. 67-69. DOI:

Conversation Analysis In A Real Conversation English Language Essay

Conversation Analysis In A Real Conversation English Language Essay In the previous chapter, discourse analysis has been discussed. In this chapter, we are going to talk about conversation analysis, which is one of the approaches to analyze discourse. 8.1.1 What is Conversation Analysis? People are interested in understanding how social interaction work. Linguists discover the ways in which how social interaction are organized, they tried to describe and analyze those features appeared in conversation; they use scientific methods to examine the phenomena. Conversation Analysis is a systematic study established by the American pioneers, Harvey Sacks, Emanuel A. Schegloff, and Gail Jefferson. According to Hutchby and Wooffitt (2008), how is a normal conversation organized, how do people arrange their conversation in daily social interaction, and what is the role of conversation in between each participants, are the major subject matter of this chapter. 8.1.2 Why do we need Conversation Analysis? Conversation analysis represents a methodological approach to the study of social communication (Psathas, 1995). At the fundamental level, conversation analysis is the study of talk. It studies the natural and authentic conversation in real life situations, especially to determine turn-taking organization, silence and repairing problem, sequence of utterances and transcription. The term interaction could apply to numbers of social encounters. For instance, a teacher chatting with students in a staff room is one kind of interaction; others included a doctor asking patient for the illnesses, a professor attending to a formal academic exchange meeting, or a woman chit-chat with the shop-keeper during she buys vegetables at the supermarket, and there are dozens of examples showing that people are involved in different contexts of conversation. 8.1.3 Maxims of Conversation In the field of linguistics, even more specifically in the area of pragmatics and discourse analysis, scholar introduced an important concept: maxims of conversation. It is the unwritten rules that govern people to make an appropriate conversation. The basic description of Grices cooperative principle govern how people ordinarily react in conversations: Be true, be brief, be relevant and be clear. 8.2.1 Turn-taking Organization in Conversation Turn-taking is one of the most critical and noticeable aspects of conversational structure. Harvey Sacks (1995), who the founder of the conversational analytic system, hold the view that the basic small unit of the conversation is turn. We are going to look at some fundamental features about turns (or floors) in order to discover how turns can be allocated. Furthermore, in a normal, polite, Western-styled conversation, participants do not keep on speaking all the time, as to demonstrates patience, cooperation, social etiquette in a conversation, they will wait for their turn to speak. Liddicoat (2007) indicated that speakers keep changing in a conversation: when A is finished, it is Bs turn to talk. Consequently when B has finished speaking, A take turn again. 8.2.2 How does turn-taking works? Schegloff, Sacks Jefferson (1974) introduced a set of turn-taking rules for people who involved in conversation can manage turn transition and turn allocation easily. The turn-taking rules are set for distinguishing who should take the turn at the next transition relevance place (TRP). A transition-relevance place (TRP) takes place at the completion of an utterance; it is the change-of-turn place (Wang, 2011). The turn-taking rules are ordered as the following: If a speaker is selected by the current speaker, then that speaker must take the turn at the next transition relevance place. Example Venus: Where should we go now, turn left or turn right?Winnie. Winnie: Erà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ I dont know, I am sorry. In this situation, A pass the turn to B by asking a question. If, however, no next speaker is selected, then any other participant in the conversation may self-select to take the role and start speaking. Example Venus: Where should we go now, turn left or turn right? Hailey: I know. Venus: Yes? Hailey. Hailey: uhà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦I suppose we should turn left. If no other speaker self-selects to take the role, the current speaker may then continue to talk again. Example Venus: Which is the correct direction to go, left or right? Winnie, Joanna, Hailey: (Silence) Venus: No one knows? Venus: uhà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Ok, turn right then. Speakers will indicate their willingness to stop by using signals, such as turning their gaze to someone in the conversation, or using body languages and gestures, in order to stop and let others continue. Also, they may soften their speech, lengthen the last syllable of a sentence or use some discourse markers e.g. you know, as you see or sort of things etc. If certain markers are showed by the current speaker, another participant will then take over the conversation. There are two types of signals or markers. Implicit markers Most of the time, people use body languages, sometimes prosodic features such as falling tone and rising tone can also be used. Example 1 Have you noticedà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ that? Example 2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ Cant you see the dolphin? Explicit markers These are different kinds of linguistic features to invite people give response. a) Suggestion Turn-taking by making some suggestions. Example Shall we go to Lamma Island on this Tuesday? b) Request Current speaker may make a request the others. Example Could you please tell me about your journey? c) Question Current speaker will asks question in order to draws people attention and encourage others to get involved. Example We go to Barcelona in the coming Easter, what do you think, darling? 8.2.3 Gaps and Overlaps in Turn-taking Jerfferson (1983) have proposed some of the organizational features of gaps and overlapping. As we mentioned before, turn-taking can be visibly signaled by using body languages and gestures, however, it can also be marked by overlapping (Hutchby Wooffitt, 1998; Schegloff, Sacks Jefferson, 1974). If two or more people are speaking at the same time, overlapping will occur when the next speaker start talking when the current speaker has just completed a thought only, but still decide to continue (Schegloff, Sacks Jefferson 1974). Gaps may be treated as signs of trouble, for example, that the upcoming turn such as disagreements and repairs (Levinson, 1983). Gaps in conversation occur very frequently, such as telephone conversation. Example 1 Joanna: Well, will you help me for these. Hailey: I certainly will give you a hand. Example 2 Hailey: Why dont you come and join me tonight at the party. Winnie: Sure, I would like to. When the next speaker self-selects at a transition-relevance place, but a current speaker would like to add additional information into the completed utterance, overlaps will also occur. Example 3 Hailey: That was a romantic weekend, uh..Ven- Venus. Venus: Im glad you enjoyed your time. Example 4 Winnie: The party should be around seven or so Venus: Well, do you have an extra bed at your place? 8.3 Repairs As Schegloff (1979) said, Repair is defined as the mechanism by which trouble in speaking, hearing, and understanding is claimed and resolved. 8.3.1 Different kinds of conversation repair Repair can be classified by who initiates repair, such as self or other, and by who solves them, such as self or other (Wikipedia: Conversation Analysis, n. d.). Repair therefore can be divided into four types. They are self-initiated self repair, other-initiated self repair, self-initiated other repair and other-initiated other repair. 8.3.1.1 Self-initiated self repair According to Wang (2011), the speaker initiates the mistake or something unknown in his conversation and he repairs it by himself, which is called self-initiated and self repair. Example Ruby: What have you done at the weekend? LiXun: I go toà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦erà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦have gone to see a movie. In the example, LiXun initiates that he uses the wrong tense so he changes go into have gone immediately. 8.3.1.2 Other-initiated self repair Not only the speaker himself can initiate his mistake, but other speakers also can do so. The speaker himself will repair it. This situation is called other-initiated self repair. The same situation as what mentioned above. The situation is changed. Ruby: What have you seen? LiXun: I go to see a movie. Ruby: (surprised) What do you mean? LiXun: I said I have gone to a movie. In this example, LiXun does not initiate that he uses the wrong tense. Ruby however dose. She reminds LiXun to repair. 8.3.1.3 Self-initiated other repair Self-initiated other repair is absolutely opposite to other-initiated self repair. The speaker himself initiates what should be repaired but he fails to repair it. The others help him to repair. Example Ruby is going on talking with LiXun. Ruby: Then what have you seen? LiXun: A movie, er, adapted from a magic fiction, er, so famous. I forget the nameà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Its writer is J.K. Rowling. Ruby: Aha. I see. Its Harry Potter. LiXun: Yes, that is! Thanks. In this example, LiXun fails to remember the name of the movie in the conversation. Even though he knows the detail of the movie, he still cannot tell Ruby what he has seen. The detail which he gives however reminds Ruby of the name of the movie. This situation is defined as self-initiated other repair. 8.3.1.4 Other-initiated other repair In other-initiated other repair, the speaker even does not initiate what he has to repair. Others initiate it and repair for the speaker. You can learn from the following example. Example LiXun wants to go on their conversation. LiXun: What about you, Ruby? Ruby: Er, I think we have to go to the lecture room. Otherwise, we will be late for the lecture. LiXun: Lets go to D1-LP-02. Ruby: No, we are going to D1-LP-04. Ruby initiates what LiXun says is wrong in the conversation and repairs what he fails to say. 8.4 Attributable silences Silence plays an important role in our speech. As stated by Jaworski (1993, p.3), The main common link between speech and silence is that the same interpretive processes apply to someones remaining meaningfully silent in discourse as to their speaking. Jaworski (1993) also suggests that silence has positive and negative value in a speech. His words indicated various silences of different situation perform different functions. 8.4.1 Function of silence Jeasen (1973) suggested that there are five function of silence in speech. The functions he points out are the following: a judgmental function, a linkage function, an affecting function, a revelation function and an activating function. All of the five functions are what we are going to focus on. 8.4.1.1 Judgmental silence According to Jeasen (1973), silence may indicate ones attitude towards the topic he is talking about. Silence can tell whether he supports or he objects the idea. Example LiXun is talking a boring topic with Ruby. LiXun: I think chemistry is so amazing! Ruby: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Smiles and says nothing) LiXun: Wow! You see the chemistry formulaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (He goes on talking excitedly.) Ruby: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Still keeps silent) Its apparent that Ruby holds opposite attitude to what LiXun is talking about. So she keeps silent for politeness. 8.4.1.2 Linkage silence Jeasen (1973) stated that silence is able to bring two or more people together or to separate them. It brings further effects on the speakers in the speech. We are familiar with the following situation. Two good friends misunderstood each other. Every time when they see each other they just keep silent. They, sooner or later, will become strangers. Because of silence, they fail to know what the other thinks. As the time goes by, they are separated by silence. This kind of silence separates people. 8.4.1.3 Affective silence Jeansen (1973) holds the opinion that silence can heal or wound someone. It is believed that silence shows your attitude towards the topic of the conversation, as well as your attitude towards the speakers. For example, people always keep silence when they are talking to someone they dislike. The silence usually wound the speakers. 8.4.1.4 Revelatory silence Revelatory silence is an interesting one. Jeasen (1973) said that there may be some information behind the silence. It, meanwhile, may be known to the speakers or the listeners. What the silence actually means depends on the relationship between the speakers. You can see in the following example. If two closed friends, especially girls, are gossiping, they will keep silence when they are met someone who they are talking about. In this example, the silence conveys a warning. 8.4.1.5 Activating silence Jeasen (1973) indicated that this kind of silence may bring some deep thoughtful signal. It also may bring mental inactive signal. While we are talking, our mind keeps on thinking. A silence is able to show the deep mind of the speakers. As you can see, when we are consulting with the professors, they usually lead us to thinking deeply. The professors, therefore, choose to be silence when we are talking our ideas. The silence can be considered as an encouragement, an agreement or an appreciation. 8.5 Sequence of Conversation 8.5.1 Adjacency Pairs Adjacency pair is the sequence of conversation. It includes two parts which are produced near another (Hutchby Wooffitt, 1998) and is the smallest unit of conversational exchange. Basic form of adjacency pair (Schegloff, 2007): First, adjacency pair involves two utterances. Once the first utterance is spoken, the second is required. Second, each utterance is produced by two different speakers. Third, pairs are adjacently placed. Fourth, pairs of utterances are ordered. They are separated into two parts. They are the first pair parts (FPPs) and the second pair parts (SFFs). For instance, given a question is followed by an answer, then the question is the FPPs and the answer is the SPPs. Lastly, they are pair-type related. Here are some example of some types of adjacency pairs (Wang, 2011): Question à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ answer [At the supermarket] Hailey: Can I get some help over here? I cant get that tin of sardines. Shop-keeper: Ill be right here to help you. Invitation / request à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ acceptance / declination [In Winnies birthday] Joanna: Would you like to dance with me, please? Winnie: Yes. Greeting à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ return greeting Hailey: Good morning. Joanna: Morning. Offer à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ acceptance / rejection [In the library] Liberian: May I help you find something? Venus: No thanks, I can find it by myself. Compliment à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ acceptance Venus: Your dress looks very lovely. Winnie: Thank you. I just brought it from HM. 8.5.1.2 Transition of sequence There are different types of transition of sequence. 8.5.1.2.1 Adjacency/ Nextness To verbalize a turn-constructional unit, every word ought to be placed one by one (Schegloff, 2007). (8.5.1.2.1.a) Ben : Good morning. Bob : Good morning. In the above conversation, Ben greets Bob and then Bob returns the greeting to Ben immediately. (8.5.1.2.1.b) Ben :Would you like to have a lunch? Bob : No, thanks. Ben : How about a drink? The above conversation is called exchange as it includes three utterances. The IRF pattern are initiation, response and follow-up (Wang, 2011). 8.5.1.2.2 Counters Counter means one does not answer SPP directly after one asks a FPP, instead he/she direct the FPP back to the asker (Schegloff, 2007). In this case, SSP given is being delayed. (8.5.1.2.2.a) (Tarpee, 1991:1) 1 Kate : F Æ’Â   What is it? 2 Emily : F Æ’Â   You guess what it is first. 3 (0.2) 4 Kate : S Æ’Â   Pumpkin. 5 Emily : Yes, it is. In the conversation, Kate asks a question (FFP) in line 1, however, Emily does not answer it in return, and instead she redirects the question back to Kate (the asker) to answer. (line2) (8.5.1.2.2.b) (Scheflen, 1961:114, as adapted in Peyrot, 1994:17) 1 Seth : F Æ’Â   Do you love me? 2 Candy : F Æ’Â   Do you think so? 3 Seth : Sure. 4 Candy : But I dont. In the conversation, Candy does not answer Seths question directly. Instead, she answers the question with an insertion of a question-answer exchange. 8.5.2 Pre-expansion Pre-expansion means adding a part before an exchange (FPs and SPs). According to Schegloffs, pre-expansion is expanding the conversation by adding preliminary question in front of the FFP (Schegloffs, 2007). 8.5.2.1 Pre-invitation Before giving an invitation, you need to be sure that he or she is available or not. So, you need to ask some preliminary questions. For example, by asking What are you doing?, if you want one to accept your invitation, you expect the answer to be no; vice versa. (8.5.2.1) (Jefferson G.3:1) (Arthur is the caller; Sylvia is answering to the phone) 1 Sylvia : Hello. 2 Arthur : Hello, how are you? 3 Sylvia : Fine, thanks. 4 Arthur : F(pre)Æ’Â   What are you doing? 5 Sylvia : S(pre)Æ’Â   Nothing. 6 Arthur : F(b) Æ’Â   Do you want a drink? 7 Sylvia : S(b) Æ’Â   Yes, why not? Arthur asks what Sylvia is doing to see if she is free or not. With the go-ahead response of Sylvia (line 5) indicating she is free, Arthur continues to invite her as he knows she is free with the pre-sequence asked at line 4. Finally, Sylvia accepts his invitation. 8.5.2.1 Pre-offer Pre-offer is similar to pre-invitation. It aims to provide the need to someone beforehand. (8.5.2.2.a) 1 Sylvia : Oh, I tear the sheet mistakenly. 2 Arthur : 3 Sylvia : I think I need to buy a tape. 4 Arthur : I have one. 5 Sylvia : Really? 6 Arthur : Do you want it? 7 Sylvia : Sure. From the example, Arthur gives the pre-offer (line 4) to Sylvia after knowing she needs a tape. At line5, when she says Really?, it is a go-ahead response to pre-sequence. Lastly, when Arthur makes the offer, she accepts. 8.5.3 Preference There are different types of responses during exchanges. For instance, when greeting, one says hello to you and you are supposed to reply with a greeting too. Nevertheless, when one asks you a question, you may have different answers which can be preferred or dispreferred by the asker. Like an invitation, the reply can be positive or negative. Nonetheless, an answer with yes does not mean it is a prefered response. According to Schegloff, If the question is built to prefer yes, then no is a dispreferred response, even if delivered without delay and in turn-initial position, vise versa (Schegloff, 1988 c:453). 8.5.3.1 Types of responses There are two types of responses. The first one is preferred responses, which means answers are given positively. Another is dispreferred responses, which means answers are given negatively. In fact, there are some hints indicating the preferred status of a turn. When answering directly and without any delay: Example: Janice : Do you want to go swimming Jill : Yes, I do. Moreover, there are some other hints indicating the dispreferred status of a turn. a) When answering indirectly: Example: Janice : Are you free on Monday? Jill : Well, I need to do my homework, and b) When answering with delay: Example: Hesitation such as Well, Um, Erà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 8.6 Conversation Transcription Transcription of conversation is very essential for analyzing conversation .It should be produced preceding conversation analysis, because it is used as a referential tool for the analysis of conversation (Psathas, 1995). 8.6.1 Tools used for recording A naturally occurring conversation is usually recorded by video recorders these days. Hence, apart from recording the conversation, body languages, gestures as well as facial expressions can also be recorded. These features are very crucial as they allow the relationship between speech and body movement to be observed (Psathas, 1995). 8.6.2 Procedures involved in transcription In fact, the recordings mentioned in 8.6.1 are done by analysts themselves. After producing the recordings, analysts listen to the recordings repeatedly by themselves. Once analysts repeatedly listen to the tape, they can focus on the phenomena that are very crucial for conversation analysis (Hutchby, Wooffitt, 2008). 8.6.3 Characteristics of conversation transcription Conversation transcription is not simply a piece of writing with words and sentences exchanged by the speakers. However, it includes many other different features as well. The information listed below should be included in a transcript (Wang, 2011). Information about the participants Words spoken Sound uttered Inaudible sound Overlapping speech Stretch, stresses, volume Different transcription symbols will be introduced as follows: 1. Latching When latching occurs in a conversation between two people, two = will be placed in the transcript when the second speaker speaks just after the first speaker speaks. The first = will be placed right behind the transcription of the first speaker, while the second one is placed in front of the transcript of the second speaker (Psathas, 1995). Example Mary: Im hungry= Peter: =You never feel full Latching by more than one speaker is represented similarly to latching by two speakers. A = is put after the transcription of the first speaker, but a =[[ is placed in front of the transcription of two speakers instead of = (Psathas, 1995). Example Hailey: Im hungry= Joanna: =[[You never feel full Venus: =[[So do I Latching by more than one speaker can also occur in a way that two speakers end their conversation at the same time and immediately the third speaker speaks. (Psathas, 1995) Example Venus: Im very very [hungry]= Hailey: [hungry] Joanna: =So do I. In this case, the Mary and Peter end their conversation at the same time and then Paul immediately speaks. 2. Audible breathing Exhalations are represented by an h or more than one h while inhalations are represented by .h or more than one .h (Psathas, 1995). Usually, exhalation expresses tiredness or sadness. Example Joanna: I havent finished my Wiki-book project yet hhhh! As for inhalation, it usually indicates surprise or nervousness. Example Venus: .hhh Im going to have my linguistics exam tomorrow. Sound stretch Sound stretch means lengthening the sound. When speakers would like to strengthen their tone, sound stretch occurs. One colon denotes that the precedent sound is lengthened, while more than 1 colon means a more lengthened sound (Psathas, 1995). Example Hailey: I am so:::: hungry Venus: I know (.) I can hear that some sounds coming out from your stomach. Intonation Throughout a conversation, there must be rises and falls in the intonation of speakers (Psathas, 1995). A rise in intonation An arrow pointing upwards is put just prior to the rise in intonation (Psathas, 1995). Example Joanna: Would you like to have dinner with me? Venus: à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬ËœYes, sure. A fall in intonation An arrow pointing downwards is put just behind the fall in intonation (Psathas, 1995). Example Hailey: Would you like to have dinner with me? ((gap)) Venus:à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Yes(0.9)if Im free tonight. Stress When speakers want to emphasize something, they will speak the words more loudly and lengthen the words. The emphasized word is underlined (Psathas, 1995). Example Hailey: I almost got full marks for my linguistics exam, will I be awarded something, Mum? Venus: Sure (0.9) Ill buy a reference book for you to study so that you can get full marks next time. Pitch A Fall in pitch To show a fall in pitch, the vowel of the word should be underlined, and a colon is added just behind the underlined vowel (Psathas, 1995). Example Hailey: I was awarded a reference boo:k(0.8) for having good results in the exam.. Joanna: If you were awarded the newly released photo album of Rain, you would have been much happier. A rise in pitch To show a rise in pitch, the stress is marked on the prolongation (Psathas, 1995). Example Joanna: My mother gave me a big surprise:::! Hailey: Buying you the photo album of Rain? Joanna: Yes:: Volume Increased Volume is indicated by capital letters (Wang, 2011). Example When Joanna is talking to Hailey, suddenly a dog appears. Joanna: Have you finished the wiki-book project? (.) A DOGS RUNNING TOWARDS US! Hailey: Calm down, Joanna. Decreased volume is indicated by degree marks (Wang, 2011). Example When Venus is telling Hailey something bad about Paul, suddenly Paul approaches. Venus: Paul never hands in his homework on time. Hailey: ËÅ ¡Pauls approachingËÅ ¡ 8. Sound uttered There are not only words within a conversation. Sometimes, when the speakers produce some sounds, they are also recorded. Example Hailey: Oh! Ive dropped my mobile phone into the toilet! Venus:(laugh) Why are you so careless? 8.7 Conclusion Conversation is an exchange of information between people in real-life situations. The aim of conversation analysis is to give an analytic description of the organization of interaction. We can understand how people carry out conversation in the society. In addition, we know more about the secrets behind the conversation, such as silence and preference.

White Fang :: White Fang Essays

White Fang The book White Fang by Jack London starts off when two men named Henry and Bill, are traveling through the snowy, below-zero weather to deliver the corpse of Lord Alfred to Fort McGurry. It is the time of famine and Henry and Bill are low on food and only have three rounds of ammunition left. One morning when they have woken up they find out that they only have two dogs of six left. The four that were missing had been eaten by the wolves. Bill decided to stay up the next night to try to kill the wolves, with whatever ammo he had left. When the night came so did the wolves. Bill chased the wolf pack, and killed three of the wolves. He tried to kill a fourth with his bare hands but it was to swift, and killed him in defence. Henry realizing what had happening lit a fire in a circle around him. Another group of people in the area saw the fire and came over and rescued Henry. After the famine ends the wolf pack splits up. The she-wolf and three male wolves travel together until one of the males named "One Eye" killed the other males in a battle for the she-wolf. One Eye and the she-wolf find a lair where the she-wolf can lie down to give birth to her cubs. Another famine comes upon the land when the cubs are still young and all of them die except for a small gray cub. The gray wolf was the strongest of his pack. His first lesson in life was the lesson of the wilderness, "Eat or be eaten, kill or be killed." The cub and it's mother leave One Eye and travel into an Indian village. The she-wolf is instantly recognized by an Indian named Gray Beaver. She answers to the name of "Kiche," and the little wolf is named White Fang. In the Indian village White Fang learns how to protect himself from other dogs. When White Fang's mother was taken from him he tried to follow hr but was beaten by Gray Beaver. The next day Gray Beaver went to sell furs at the nearest fort, and took White Fang with him.

Journal Article on Juvenile Delinquency Essay

The study made by Kaplan and Johnson corresponds to the value of how people and corresponding social institutions perceive juvenile delinquency. In particular, it tackled the capacity of creating punishments and sanctions as an ideal norm that needs to be pursued. Such direction then fostered better means of analyzing the response of different social institutions towards these actions. Similarly, the aspect of labeling within the social model was also studied. In particular, it takes into consideration how this process corresponds to how individuals ascertain relationships and function towards functioning effectively within the specific standards established (Kaplan and Howard, p. 99). To achieve this perspective, the process of labeling was studied and determined by its capacity to promote deterrence. Similarly, careful study was also made in how a relationship may exist between the processes of social sanctions and the application of appropriate standards related to a model of deviant behavior (Kaplan and Johnson, p. 100). Through this, the study was able to establish specific patterns that allow the labeling process during deviant behavior to explain the motivation and resistance towards engagement. Such actions then help explain the manner on how people relate with social institutions and others accordingly. After careful analysis, the study then illustrated the value of utilizing labeling within the deviant behavior. Here, the principle is used to create better means of fostering distinctions between responses among individuals and social institutions (Kaplan and Johnson, p. 116). Seeing this, the idea then of labeling becomes both constructive in its capacity to motivate a change in behavior and deterrence of deviance. On the other hand, it also brings about a negative outcome that it promotes biased views and alienation among individuals who engage in such actions. Due to this, the principle then opens up greater opportunities to correlate in the process of role development and the creation of identity and behavior according to specific norms and establish specific responses due to negative social sanctions especially in the formulation of deviance. Reflecting on the article, it can be seen that the process of labeling remains to be an important component shaping perceptions among individuals concerning deviant behavior. It carries along the principle of facilitating norms and maintenance of status quo especially within different social institutions. Due to this, it both serves as deterrence for those who try to engage in such actions and hampers the relationship among peers. Such action then ensures the validity of ensuring stability among individuals and the manner they act and react to their specific environments. Similarly, the idea then of social controls provided towards deviant behavior remains to be innate in social norms. Analyzing these realities, it can be surmised that it functions towards establishing better means for people to act. By setting up these rules and standards, the manner of relationships and functions among people becomes effective and viable. Overall, the usefulness of this article revolves around its capacity to effectively understand the relationships surrounding deviance, social control, and social sanctions. It also tries to support the tenets of deviance theory by providing specific principles shaping and supplementing both its development and application of control. Such actions then increase the likelihood of establishing concrete definition and analysis. Lastly, this direction then opens up the capacity to understand the process of deviant behavior in the lens of sociology; as it tries to understand how it creates specific roles, develops relationship, and maintenance of control.

Columbia River Pulp Company Inc

CORP. received refinanced approval of its long term debt from Toronto – Dominion Bank (AD Bank) amounting to $200 million based on floating rate. The floating interest rate represents the significant risk that needs to be mitigated through hedging products. There were some hedging products that AD Bank offered to CORP., swaps, caps, or collars, or some combination? There were definite trade-offs between these hedging products In terms of flexibility, interest rate protection, and true cost. Andrew Theatre, Chairman of CORP., had to decide on the amounts and maturities of the various transaction hedging offered.Issue Business Kraft Market pulp Is a truly global commodity, which prices changing quickly In response to capacity changes, inventory levels, and purchase levels. While market alp is produced in about 25 countries, historically more than two-thirds of world output has come from five northern countries : the united States, Canada, Sweden, Finland, and Norway. One major c hange in the global pulp market was the mid – sass launch of pulp futures markets . While these markets were not an immediate success, there was enough trading volume to sustain at least market, the Pulped/ Finish Options Exchange.It was hoped that futures markets, widely used to trade futures in commodity products – such as copper, aluminum, sugar, and coffee – would bring more price stability to the pulp market and even out some of the extreme price fluctuations that have plagued the global market pulp Industry. Price levels for market pulp as shown below : In 1978, CORP. had financed the original cost of the mill from a group of united States insurance companies. The insurance companies was in doubt about the quality of their loans. This was because of the cumulative operating losses over the 1982 – 1986 period which totaling $ 39. 1 million.CORP. was unable to meet the repayment schedule on the debt. So, in march 1988, CORP. approached Toronto  œ Dominion Bank (AD Bank) to refinance $200 million of its long term debt. On July 21 , 1988 CORP. received reedit approval from AD Bank Board. CORP. received rationalization financing a $200 million, seven year reducing, revolving term facility and a $25 million operating facility from the syndicate of six international banks. The floating rate borrowing options and bank lending margins were shown below : The use of floating rate debt to finance fixed assets represents significant risks If the interest rates increased.The risk can be offset through interest rate swaps, caps, and collars. In order to partially engage ten Tolling rills rate on ten mans ten Dank syndicate had included a positive covenant in the credit agreement which effectively arced the company to lock in fixed rates of interest on its debt. This covenant stated the following : within 90 days after closing, the borrower will arrange interest rate swaps or similar hedging arrangements so that a total of $100 million of debt has a term of at least three years and an interest rate not to exceed 12%.

Free Essays on Fashion

In my lifetime I have worn many different types of styles ad well as participated in a few new fashion trends. Three styles I participated in were â€Å"dress codes†, â€Å"vintage/preppy†, and â€Å"designer clothing.† Some of the reasons for changing the way you dress have to do with your environment, surroundings, and the people whom which you associate with. When I was in sixth grade, I transferred to a private school. Our dress code consisted of a blue polo shirt and khaki pants or a white polo shirt and blue pants. We wore this clothing because it was what was expected of us. I didn’t like the style and thought it was rather boring, but I did it because my parents made me. I tried to find ways to make this dress code a little bit more unique. I would wear a blue belt with my khaki pants and hope that maybe I would stand out in a school of three hundred or so kids. Wearing the same thing in school eliminated the competition. The school didn’t want the kids to compete over who was wearing the nicer alfit so they made it the same. At this point in my life I wasn’t yet an individual. I went with the flow and tried not to be completely different than all the other kids. I didn’t have the confidence and security yet to do so. When you’re a kid you want to be life everybody else because you donâ⠂¬â„¢t want people to make fun of you, even if you feel different kids can be very mean. It’s hard to have meaningful self-exploration when you are young because you are just trying to fit in and that it hard enough. When you get a little older and more secure than you can begin the journey of self-discovery and make it show, in ways of clothes and hairstyle, etc. In a way I was always a little bit different than all of my friends. I knew that I would need to find a way to stick out, but I didn’t necessarily want it to be through clothing (at least not yet). Private school was in a way trying to make everyone look exactl... Free Essays on Fashion Free Essays on Fashion In my lifetime I have worn many different types of styles ad well as participated in a few new fashion trends. Three styles I participated in were â€Å"dress codes†, â€Å"vintage/preppy†, and â€Å"designer clothing.† Some of the reasons for changing the way you dress have to do with your environment, surroundings, and the people whom which you associate with. When I was in sixth grade, I transferred to a private school. Our dress code consisted of a blue polo shirt and khaki pants or a white polo shirt and blue pants. We wore this clothing because it was what was expected of us. I didn’t like the style and thought it was rather boring, but I did it because my parents made me. I tried to find ways to make this dress code a little bit more unique. I would wear a blue belt with my khaki pants and hope that maybe I would stand out in a school of three hundred or so kids. Wearing the same thing in school eliminated the competition. The school didn’t want the kids to compete over who was wearing the nicer alfit so they made it the same. At this point in my life I wasn’t yet an individual. I went with the flow and tried not to be completely different than all the other kids. I didn’t have the confidence and security yet to do so. When you’re a kid you want to be life everybody else because you donâ⠂¬â„¢t want people to make fun of you, even if you feel different kids can be very mean. It’s hard to have meaningful self-exploration when you are young because you are just trying to fit in and that it hard enough. When you get a little older and more secure than you can begin the journey of self-discovery and make it show, in ways of clothes and hairstyle, etc. In a way I was always a little bit different than all of my friends. I knew that I would need to find a way to stick out, but I didn’t necessarily want it to be through clothing (at least not yet). Private school was in a way trying to make everyone look exactl...

Baroque Period essays

Baroque Period essays The Baroque Art began in Italy between the sixteen hundreds and the seventeen hundreds. Classicism of the High Renaissance has been replenished during the Baroque period. During the Baroque period of art, the exploration of the fundamental components of the human nature and the realm of senses and emotions were very crucial. The Baroque era was very vast and dynamic, radiant and colorful, dramatic and intense, passionate and ardent, and sensual and overpowered by emotions. The superficial form of light was fascinated during this period due to the thoughts of godlike sun or the truth of the Holy Spirit. The Baroque naturalism maintains the religious themes in content. The elements of perception in the Baroque art are how we perceived the natural human figures are in motion through space, time, and light. We present and analyze the extent of human actions and passions in all its degrees of lightness, darkness, and intensity. One of the most well known Italian painters from the Baroque period was Annibale Carracci. One of his famous works was from the Gallery of the Palazzo Farnese in Rome. The Farnese ceiling had a big impact in the modification of High Renaissance painting. It revives the Renaissance in human themes and emotions and the concentration of human nature and anatomy; therefore, forming a connection between the Renaissance and the Baroque. It creates the naturalistic and classical art and form in the paintings. He greatly influenced another Italian painter named Carlo Dolci, who painted Virgin and Child with Saint John the Baptist. In this painting, strong feelings and emotions are being greatly expressed without words. We see that Carraccis painting of the Farnese ceiling was painted in rich, brilliant colors, just like the Virgin and the Childs clothing in Dolcis painting. The emphasis of the human body and emotions are greatly displayed. Human nudity and beauty was also an important fact or. The nudi...

5 Super Simple Tips for Dealing With a Difficult Boss

5 Super Simple Tips for Dealing With a Difficult Boss There are bad bosses and then there are tough bosses. If your boss is in the second category, they might not be doing anything outwardly wrong or inappropriate- they might even be a good boss, in the end- but they sure do keep you on your toes. Whether it’s micromanaging or outrageously high standards or inaccessibility†¦ a difficult boss is a tough thing to manage. Here are 5 strategies for how to make the best of a challenging situation, things you can do to change the situation from your end, and how it can benefit your career.1. Don’t be too sensitive.The first rule of tough bosses is not to take anything personally. Your boss might have a temper, or a super exacting work ethic, or almost unreasonable standards. Your boss might throw tantrums or demand the impossible. Your boss might be short with you. None of these things should be interpreted as personal affronts.Your boss is human, and dealing with a bunch of things that have nothing to do with you; thatâ₠¬â„¢s in the background of every interaction. But also, a real professional takes the message in the madness (This project not perfect yet? Okay!) and leaves any perceived judgment behind. Let the tone or manner of the delivery be whatever it is; take the information you need and simply do your job. Plus, it doesn’t necessarily matter if your boss likes you.2.  Come up with the solutions yourself.If you have a tough boss, try to get your questions answered elsewhere- same with your problems and small talk. It’s not possible to never need something from your boss, but you could probably drastically cut down on how many interactions you have with her where you’re not making her life easier. Focus on delivering results when you walk into her office. The more you go in there with solutions to her problems, rather than questions about your own†¦ the better.3. Be proactive.If you have access to your boss’s schedule, make a note of what big projects and p riorities she’s working on and stay mindful of them. Help where you can. Be proactive. Keep thinking forward, and help your boss do the same. And instead of waiting to be asked to check in (or for an informal performance review), take the initiative to schedule regular check-ins with your boss and come prepared. Detail what you’ve been working on and the progress you’ve been making. Basically, anticipate your boss’s needs and questions and have answers always at the ready.4. Radiate confidence.Even when you make mistakes. Especially when you make mistakes! Rather than trying to hide or fib your way out of it, take responsibility. Own it. Say â€Å"I screwed up and here is how I’m already working to fix it.† Remind yourself that their anger will fade, that you’re still the smart and capable employee they hired, and give them a bunch of good reasons to forget you ever erred.5. Figure out what’s in it for you.A tough boss can actu ally be a great opportunity. You’ll work that much harder, be that much more on your game. And you’ll probably get lots more done. You’ll also figure out what you are (and aren’t) looking for in your next boss, so you can make a more informed career decision when next you’re on the market. Try to focus on the positive aspects of this challenging situation, and you’ll be able to use this one tough boss to better your whole career.

Chippewas in the Early Twentieth Century Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Chippewas in the Early Twentieth Century - Essay Example view of civilization into the American white mainstream assimilation. The Chippewa in twentieth century Indians’ experience in the reservations Reservation has been a fundamental feature in the Indian-American history during two centuries; for some Indians, it is a reminder of Euro-American colonialism where indigenous Americans were subjected to small camps and their lands taken away. The guiding principle for the reservation of indigenous people was that the American whites felt that they possessed the original right to that land and that indigenous people were to obtain it either through purchase or negotiations to form treaties and agreements. The federal government also used military force, conquest and discovery concept in order to incorporate indigenous groups into camps and, therefore, into the national fold.3 Reservations were recognized by the laws and in 1775, Indian affairs department was formed to deal with issues of Indians in the reserves. After the independence , a national policy of administration of Indians was adopted and this gave congress powers to trade, treaties, warfare over the Indians and then right to take away land of Indians. With those powers and privileges, the congress in 1778 formed Indian reservations through treaty/statute confining Indian tribes in specific boundaries.4 In the period of 1828-1838, over 90,000 Native Americans were forced to move to west of Mississippi river and gave the abandoned land to its white citizens. The native tribes (Indians) suffered population decrease since the federal government used force to relocate them, the small tribal governments they had were disrupted and as they tried to form tribal government in places where they settled, they were weakened. In 1916, the Chippewa were given Rocky boy Indian reservation, a large military reservation and portion of the Fort Assiniboine; while in the early twentieth century, they traded with the army officers and had no land since they had been displ aced by the white Americans. The reason behind the reservation of the Indian tribes was in two dimensions; the resources of the Native Americans could be exploited and at a minimum cost, and the reservations were a test of social engineering that were seen as a refuge institution for the endangered race and through it, they can be uplifted by assimilation and, indeed, the office of Indians established by congress promoted assimilation and breaking the notion of salvage life to civilized values through insisting on education, agricultural labor and development of finances, with this, the government perceived reservations as a controlled method of civilization through an agent (Indian office), thus, it was sanctioned.5 Some laws were made just for the

Explain The ethical Issues when the board of directors must approve Essay

Explain The ethical Issues when the board of directors must approve plans for moving a company production facilities from a stateside location to an overseas location - Essay Example The utilitarian theory manifests its truest self here by discussing the happiness or the lack thereof, with concerns to the people who will lose out on their jobs and finances once the company decides to move its production facilities from a stateside location to an overseas one. The utilitarian theory will judge the exact amount of ethical considerations in line with the undertakings of the organization once it decides to change locations (Cornman, 1992). The utilitarian theory thus emphasizes a great deal on the workers’ understanding of the situation at hand and how they will cope up with the future implications of moving production facilities to an overseas location. The company’s leadership should balance the needs of the workers in line with the organizational goals, mission and vision. No one can take preference over the other and it is the duty of the organizational top management to comprehend how it can mesh the two factors to have a win-win situation at the very end. This will ensure success at all levels, as well as manifest growth and development at all possible levels and towards all workers who seem to miss out on the premise of working for this organization in the

Hospitality History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Hospitality History - Essay Example As many organizations continue to struggle in the market segment, the hospitality industry continues to record impressive profits (Gray, 2009). Statistics in the US reveal that between 2009 and 2014, the industry has been postulated to create 17% more jobs to people. The industry has been providing young people with well paying jobs and of these, 21% are aged between 16 and 20 years. This implies that the industry has a great future because a bulk of its workers is young people, who are growing in experience every year. The success that this industry is currently enjoying has not originated out of the blues. The foundation was set hundreds to thousands of years ago, and there has been gradual evolution over time. However, with evolution of the hospitality industry, profit generation has been injected into the process whereby, visitors are given noteworthy treatment in exchange for money. The money in turn is used to expand the industry. Therefore, the difference between hospitality f rom medieval times and the current era is that, the former was not a profit generating course while the latter is a large industry that generates a lot of profit and employs very many workers (Clayton, 20070. The hospitality industry’s origins span back to the colonial era in the late 17th century. Later, it began to take shape, evolving into the dynamic industry that we know in the current world. In its development, it has encountered world wars, natural calamities and social changes, but none of these suppressed the industry. Even in the biblical setting, we are introduced to hospitality whereby visitors were well received by people from other areas. For example, Abraham had his tent, and upon looking at it closely, he felt that if visitors saw that he had one entrance, they would not feel welcome. He, therefore, decided to create four entrances to his tent, visitors would be encouraged to come. After he did this, visitors multiplied in numbers, and many of them would pass by his tent as they were travelling. Abraham would welcome and feed them well and after a few days, they would continue with their journey. Later, Japanese dynasties, Native American Indians and European Monarchs set up quarters in their residences for visitors where meals and recreational facilities were offered (Lashley, 2008). Early hospitality was noted in Greek and roman cultures as early as 40 BC. During this era, people began travelling which necessitated the establishment of hospitality cultures. Later in the medieval period, English travelers emerged. During this period, people started using other transportation means apart from foot transport. Stagecoach became the favored form of transportation and inns were established for travelled. As time went by, the hospitality industry grew and became a bit profitable. Furthermore, employment opportunities were enhanced in the industry. In the renaissance period (16th century), there was a high demand for taverns and inns since tra velers were increasing in numbers. The first hotel in this period was the Hotel de Henry IV that was built in 1788. With a bed capacity of 60 beds, it provided noteworthy services to travelers. This was the beginning of hotel establishment in the hospitality industry. Coffee houses were a popular destination for business travelers (Cummings, 2009). The 18th century marked the beginning of the New World.

Faith and Vocation-Child and Family Services Coursework

Faith and Vocation-Child and Family Services - Coursework Example I have a strong vocation for child and family services because this field offers the most opportunity for integration of faith. Following discussion seeks to illuminate the reality of this claim that â€Å"developing a strong bond between faith and vocation can help one give a definite spiritual meaning to professions like child and family services.† Fea (2010) claims that people are obligated to use whatever knowledge they have in promoting common good according to how it is stipulated in the Bible. According to Hughes & Hughes (2005), it is our duty as Christians to use our skills in a manner that reflects the position we are given by God. Christians believe that God is very pleased when He sees His people using their skills in accordance with the Holy Scriptures. In Matthew 5: 44, Jesus announces the desire of God saying, â€Å"Love your enemies, bless them that curse you† (cited in Scheele, 2006, p. 131). Therefore, it is a religious obligation of children and family service providers to remain professional under all circumstances and help their clients despite their inadequacies. We are not sent by our Lord to greedily advance our personal interests while eschewing the welfare of humanity. It is due to the fact that we have stopped seeing faith and vocation as two entities inextricably linked to one another that such despair and anguish has taken the place of peace in our lives. Remembering the teachings of Jesus Christ when interacting with disadvantaged children and families is bound to motivate us to give our best to those in need because of this influential message in our minds that we have to die one day and answer God. It is important to enumerate just how faith can be expressed by a professional within the field of children and family services. For example, a child of divorced parents can be assisted by a certified specialist in dealing with pressures of daily life by encouraging his/her faith. Every time a disadvantaged child is brought by children

The U.S. Labor History in the 20th century Essay - 2

The U.S. Labor History in the 20th century - Essay Example It would seem that high unemployment and a bleak economic outlook would discourage workers from uprising. However, worker solidarity will prevail over fears of economic outcome. During good economic times, the capital is benefiting more than the worker is. This puts the capital in a position of authority and the attendant perks that come with it. There are political considerations, a favorable judiciary, and enforcement techniques that discourage organization. Business has law enforcement and the system to back up their position. When difficult times hit with the economic downturn beginning in 1932, the unions were able to become more solidified. Union members were able to speak for the unemployed and disadvantaged and gained more interest and support. It was the direct connection between the union and the working class that was able to mobilize the unions during the depression. The Cold War decade of the 1950s brought about greater cooperation between workers and management which was more likely due to conciliatory attitudes than worker satisfaction. The unions had made strides through the ability to organize in the 1930s and the war effort of the 1940s. However, the post-war period brought about some dissatisfaction among the public for the head of the AFL-CIO, John Lewis. A successful strike in 1943 at the height of the war had sparked public outrage that he had broken the war efforts no-strike policy. This anger would not be forgotten when Congress overrode Truman's veto of the Labor-Management Relations Act, known as the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947. The Labor-Management Relations Act set the stage for union activity during the 1950s. It severely limited the union's ability to organize and strike. Business was pushing for greater productivity at the expense of the workers. Strikes were generally short-lived, local, and quickly suppressed. The closed shop was outlawed and companies would move plants to locations that were less labor-friendly.  

Communication with Families Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Communication with Families - Essay Example Working parents, especially fathers, or those who live at distant locations are â€Å"less involved† in their children’s education â€Å"unless the school organizes opportunities†¦in various times and in various places† (Epstein, 2001, p. 407). C. The teacher said that the document contained some information that came â€Å"directly from our state education office†. This technical information was less likely to be understood by less educated parents. Secondly, the teacher said that the â€Å"web site will also allow us to communicate by e-mail†, but he did not consider the fact that many parents would not be having any computers at home or e-mail addresses through which they could communicate with school authorities. D. The information that came directly from the state education office would have affected less educated parents since they might not have understood such formal phrases. Secondly, those parents who did not know how to use internet or did not have computers at home got no help in getting to know how to use the website. Mendoza (2003) asserts that â€Å"when professionals use technical terms and jargon without sufficient explanation, parents may not understand key information about their children†. E. The teacher could have shown greater sensitivity to the parents by explaining the instructions of state education office in easier words so that every parent could have understood it. Mendoza (2003) states that the difficult reading level of the written materials makes them â€Å"potentially inaccessible to parents with lower literacy skills or to second-language English speakers†. Secondly, the teacher should have considered how those parents were going to communicate who did not have computers at their homes. F. A parent plays a vital role in his child’s education. He has to stay well informed about his timetable. He

The U.S. Labor History in the 20th century Essay - 2

The U.S. Labor History in the 20th century - Essay Example It would seem that high unemployment and a bleak economic outlook would discourage workers from uprising. However, worker solidarity will prevail over fears of economic outcome. During good economic times, the capital is benefiting more than the worker is. This puts the capital in a position of authority and the attendant perks that come with it. There are political considerations, a favorable judiciary, and enforcement techniques that discourage organization. Business has law enforcement and the system to back up their position. When difficult times hit with the economic downturn beginning in 1932, the unions were able to become more solidified. Union members were able to speak for the unemployed and disadvantaged and gained more interest and support. It was the direct connection between the union and the working class that was able to mobilize the unions during the depression. The Cold War decade of the 1950s brought about greater cooperation between workers and management which was more likely due to conciliatory attitudes than worker satisfaction. The unions had made strides through the ability to organize in the 1930s and the war effort of the 1940s. However, the post-war period brought about some dissatisfaction among the public for the head of the AFL-CIO, John Lewis. A successful strike in 1943 at the height of the war had sparked public outrage that he had broken the war efforts no-strike policy. This anger would not be forgotten when Congress overrode Truman's veto of the Labor-Management Relations Act, known as the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947. The Labor-Management Relations Act set the stage for union activity during the 1950s. It severely limited the union's ability to organize and strike. Business was pushing for greater productivity at the expense of the workers. Strikes were generally short-lived, local, and quickly suppressed. The closed shop was outlawed and companies would move plants to locations that were less labor-friendly.  

Critical Response Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Critical Response - Research Paper Example The two stories intricately crisscross each other and in a way assume a form and life of their own as they gradually unravel. Dunye’s film primarily comes out as a complex yet somewhat enticing insight into the American history, delving on the relevance of cultural icons and issues pertaining to cultural representation. However, the film sometimes confuses the audience going by the fact that it has a lot going on in it at the same time, thereby making the plot a little complicated with haphazardly placed setting of the events, their order and duration, and the exact relationship between them. Still, Dunye has been able to manipulate the link between the plot and the story to facilitate a sense of drama. To a great extent the story relies on stereotypical contrasts and comparisons like the differences between regular, curious and evolving character of the young black lesbian Cheryl and Tamara, her particularly stereotypical, hardliner and close minded friend. The one big weakne ss in the film is that it predominantly intends to intrigue through the ingenuity of the exploitation of documentary techniques. May be it is owing to this that some audience may find themselves disappointed by the disparity and lack of correlation between the form and the content. What the forms in the movie Watermelon Woman seem to offer, the content sadly falls short of it. One special thing about the larger theme of the movie is that it has definitely succeeded in emphasizing the emotional relevance and value of cinema. However, the coy romance engaged in by Cheryl, and the wacky shots that she is continually subjected to, to a large extent dilute the overall impact of the movie, making it conveniently ingratiating for an audience with regular expectations, without being able to score the incumbent and associated political comments. Though, the prime focus of the director seems to be to resuscitate a part of the African American history that conveniently got sidelined in the flo w of time, which is the Black sexual history, the film badly falls short of achieving this objective in a forceful way. However, Dunye has managed to succeed in securing varied salient objectives that attend the feature films associated with the like subjects and themes. In her own peculiar way Dunye has been able to write a history that earlier never existed. In that context, the film Watermelon Women is securely grounded in the historiographical facts and realities of the Black people and especially the black women of the last century. For instance, Cheryl’s quest for the ‘Watermelon Woman’, engages her in interesting and thought provoking interviews with many people who happened to be the fundamental part and parcel of the Black Club culture during the interwar days. While delving on the film in a serious and analytical manner, one simply cannot help identifying the personal stake that the director has in the movie. The Watermelon Woman throughout hovers aroun d an essential black lesbian identity. However, it does so by stimulating the viewers to correlate and identify the connections between the stories of a black American actress from the bygone era, who managed to accrue fame through a range

A Significance Of Rehabilitation Criminology Essay

A Significance Of Rehabilitation Criminology Essay This report attempts to explore the development of Rehabilitation System in United Kingdom since its first appearance into Parliamentary Acts until nowadays. It will be presented the history of rehabilitation based on Prison reforms and its significance and relation to society. The report aims to address objectively great changes that were made according to Parliamentary Acts, Reviews and Reports of Ministry of Justice along with writings of professionals who aimed to review its concept and analyse the usefulness and impact of the Offenders Rehabilitation Programmes. Furthermore, it will be provided the cogent of offering treatment to offenders in order to reduce recidivism, which will be followed by an evaluation and recommendations upon Rehabilitation System. In the past, for many years it was believed that the proper punish for an offender had strictly to do with the violent attitude against him and torturing of his body, deportation or even death penalty. Nowadays, and after several prison reforms Justice comes across the term of Rehabilitation. To begin with, Michel Foucault stated in 1975 that Rehabilitation procedure has more to do with discipline of the soul than the torturing of the body. (Foucault and Sheridan, 1979) The word rehabilitation is defined as re-enabling and it has Latin roots as it comes from the term rehabilitare. The assumption of all these is that Justice System is not only obliged to keep the community safer by holding the offenders in prison but also preparing them, for several reasons, to re-join society, by practicing their mind, developing their skills and expanding their knowledge. 1.2 Significance of Rehabilitation It is necessary to be mentioned the importance of Rehabilitation from either points of view, that of Justice and society and that of the prisoners. Later on, it will also be discussed the significant thesis of rehabilitation to the reduction of re-offending. Rehabilitations vital role is as it was mentioned above discipline of the mind. Through discipline, the offender will be able to be useful to society without being tempted to commit another crime. In addition to that, there are also going to be mentioned the programmes and techniques provided to the offenders, depending on the type of their offence and their needs. These needs can be categorized, as it has not always have to do with criminogenic factors as mental illness or any kind of addiction, but also survival into society matters as where to live or work or permanent health issues. Following the previous statement, this dissertation is going to include an exploration upon behavioural programmes, depending on the individualit y of every offender. 1.3 Aims of Dissertation Through a study upon Rehabilitations background from its roots since today, this dissertation aims to provide a wide briefing about rehabilitation system in United Kingdom. The sensitive correlation between society and prisoners can cause several problems to their in-between balance, and this is another issue that will be stated, by analysing the rehabilitation systems impacts to both of them. A review upon behavioural programmes will be mentioned later on along with their significance to the offenders. They are also going to be examined the advantages and disadvantages of the current system and its development throughout years. In addition to that this dissertation aims to explore the type of the rehabilitation programme which has to be followed by any offender depending on the type of his offense, the time of his penalty, any drug or alcohol addiction who may has, his age and gender, if he or she belongs to a minority group and last but not least if he or she suffers from any menta l disorder. 1.4 Overview of Content As it was mentioned above, this dissertation tends to give a brief review of Rehabilitation System for prisoners in United Kingdom since its first appearance. A flashback to rehabilitations first concept and its idea of discipline will be made in order to be evaluated its importance to the Justice System. They are also going to be discussed historical figures that published their first thoughts upon Justice System, as it had to do with punishing and imprisonment. Their appearance was significant to social reforming and inclusion of Parliamentary Acts into Justice, in order to change the detention conditions of that time, along with the relation of rehabilitation to reducing crime. In addition to that it is going to be discussed the context of Rehabilitation in general and its aims, as it plays major role as well to the whole Justice System and several aspects of society. From the content of this dissertation they cannot be excluded the Parliamentary Acts that involved rehabilitation and their relation to the present one. As it was stated above this dissertation will include a review of the services provided depending on the needs of the prisoners, along with the types and categories of the current rehabilitation programmes, their affects and their prospects of development. A major part of the information given is provided through literature review upon reports, statistics and Acts of the Ministry of Justice, Home Office, House of Commons and the Government. Chapter 2 History of Rehabilitation 2. History of Rehabilitation This chapter is going to explore Rehabilitations System Background and History since the first appearance. It will be also examined the first Parliamentary Act which includes rehabilitation and the purposes of its concept. Finally it will be discussed the Nothing Works debate. 2.1 Background The state before the current concept of Rehabilitation, which has to do more with discipline of the mind, had different ways to deal with the offenders. Depending on the type of crime the prisoners were coming across tough punishment through which they could be tortured, deported or even face death penalty. It seems as if during the 17th Century the idea of discipline started to establish. It has to be mentioned that the concept of rehabilitation back then was received in order to be given to the offender a chance of fitting back to society. The purpose was to be offered a safer society as an offender could re-join it and be a useful member of it. As it was mentioned above it was only in 1764 when Cesare Beccaria (b. 1738) expanded in his work the idea of Rehabilitation. When his book On Crimes and Punishment was published it was exposed a new chapter to Justice System as it had to do with the theme of imprisonment. By the time, his thoughts were mainly influenced by the new, by then, era of Enlightenment. Beccaria had several positions inside society, as he was a well-known philosopher, criminologist and jurist. It can be assumed that Cesare Beccaria was the first who gave in public the idea of rehabilitation with main purpose the discipline of mind and soul and expect as an outcome the reducing of re-offending, and offending is general, as the ex-offender could have the ability to expand his knowledge to others as well. To be more specific, the criminologist stated that It is evident from the simple considerations already set out that the purpose of punishment is not that of tormenting or afflicting any sentient creature, no r of undoing a crime already committed. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The purpose, therefore, is nothing other than to prevent the offender from doing fresh harm to his fellows and to deter others from doing likewise. (Beccaria, 2010) In addition to that, a philosopher and social reformer of that time who wrote about the importance of punishment giving to the offender in accordance to the type of the crime committed was Jeremy Bentham (b. 1748). Bentham, who is also one of the founders of the theory of utilitarianism, published in 1811 his work The rationale of punishment through which he expressed his thoughts upon punishment. To be more specific, the philosopher stated that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦A punishment may be analogous to an offence, it is necessary that the crime should be attended with some striking characteristic circumstances, capable of being transferred upon the punishment. These characteristic circumstances will be different in different crimes. (Beccaria, 2010) 2.2 Penitentiary Act The philanthropist and prison reformer John Howard (b. 1726) published in 1774 his reports about the detention conditions of the offenders as he spend a year working as a sheriff and evidenced the situation himself. He also managed to visit other prisons as well in order to be sure of his findings, before the export of his reports. His findings led the justice system to include two more Acts which were dealing with the circumstances under which the offenders were held, and suggested the thesis of the State in order to provide prisons which could offer humane conditions of detention. Howard also mentioned that they had do be done changes as it had to do with the fees paid to the jailers, as in many occasions offenders were still held in prison even if they had complete their penalty because they were not able to pay them. It was only in 1779 when the passage of Parliamentary Acts had been made and it was given the permission to begin the building of the first State Prisons, which would offer healthier living conditions to the prisoners. The above can be assumed as the first evidence of an attempt of a proper rehabilitation system in United Kingdom. Even though several actions took place after the Act, the construction of a prison was not be done until 1785, when the magistrate Sir George Onesiphorus Paul completed the first prison at Gloucester which was stated as a first prison model at that time as it was approaching every aspect of the prisoners needs. It was coming across the previous statements about a healthier environment, as it was consisted by separated cells, classification of prisoners depending on the type of their offence and it was also provided medical support. Although the Penitentiary Act of 1779 has made a major point during the development of Justice System and Rehabilitation, as it brought massive changes to the System as they knew it by then, it is believed that it had affected it in many ways. According to the Cambridges Historical Journal, it was strongly believed that the basic reason of these Acts pass was the reducing of deportation. In other words, prisons had to be held, in order to keep the offenders there, without the state having the need to deport them. That statement could be valid, as after the construction of the prisons in England, several other countries followed the same path, for the same reasons. 2.3 Purposes of Rehabilitation After the engagement of the Penitentiary Act, Justice System started to develop the concept of imprisonment as a path to rehabilitation. As it was mentioned above, imprisonment reduced deportation of offenders and that created several problems at that time to jailers, as the population of the prison started to increasing. However, the key concept of Rehabilitation was the reducing of re-offending as it was believed that by educating the offenders, they would re-join society with different habits. The main theme of Rehabilitation was at that point that it would be created a safer community, as ex-offenders would not make the same mistakes, be useful to society and stop other people as well from committing a crime. At this point it is more important to Justice to protect society rather than being easier to an offender to resettle in terms of fitting smoothly back to community. However, as the years passing by the Justice System and Rehabilitation Services are keep developing in order to be updated to the needs of community. It has been already stated that the prison population started to increase. It seems as if that the same problem remained since today. At this point rehabilitation for prisoners in United Kingdom plays vital role, along with several changes that were made to the penalties of every offense, the system has to come up with new ways of avoiding prison overcrowding. Overpopulated prisons can be harmful to both bodies, to offenders and guards as well. In addition to the above, the support to offenders who have complete their penalty towards community is important as in most of the cases the reason why they are committing the same crime again is strongly connected to the social exclusion they are facing. It can be difficult to some offenders to re-join society, and at this point it is a matter of great significance the rehabilitation services during imprisonment along with some time after release. Rehabilitation Services are aiming to offer to the prisoners the appropriate support for every case individually. Apart from the Rehabilitation programmes which are being used and they will be discussed later on, they are provided to the offenders several other services in order to being able to re-join society. According to the report of The House of Commons for the Parliament, offenders are coming across many themes during Rehabilitation. Rehabilitation programmes are being included into the context of Rehabilitation services, as they are being part of the Purposeful Activity along with physical education and training, which aims to educate and train prisoners. One of the reasons why this System also targets to reduce reconviction rates is as mentioned above there is in exist the problem of overcrowding. This has a result the continuous transfer of the offenders to other prisons and that has a major affect to programmes, as the prisoners cannot receive a stable rehabilitation progr amme. 2.4 Nothing Works What Works? Debate From the background review of Rehabilitation cannot be excluded the Nothing Works What works? debate which began in 1974 towards a Robert Martinsons research. Even though this debate was made based upon the American Justice system its impact affected United Kingdom as well in terms of re-thinking its approach on that specific topic. After a long study Martinson stated that Rehabilitation System does not help in reducing re-offending. According to Martinson, they existed few programmes that were useful for the prisoners, but the overall outcome it was not the expected. The writer, who tried to give an explanation for the success in reducing recidivism stated, Having entered this very serious caveat, I am bound to say that these data, involving over two hundred studies and hundreds of thousands of individuals as they do, are the best available and give us very little reason to hope that we have in fact found a sure way of reducing recidivism through rehabilitation. This is not to say that we found no instances of success or partial success; it is only to say that these instances have been isolated, producing no clear pattern to indicate the efficacy of any particular method or treatment. (Lipton et al., 1975) During the 1980s there was a significant turn of political views towards the Right and as the change of view towards the current -at the time- rehabilitation system was differentiated, there were some opinions that the system of justice should change the penalty severity according to the offence that was caused by each offender and this specific group of opinions was made renown as the Just Desert terminology. The application of penalties would be carried out in a way that as an example a murderer would receive the same harm as he had caused to the victim which would be death. That initiated the usage of boot camps and prison regimes in order to strike a short, sharp shock effect to the offenders. Martinsons views were dictating that the majority of the funding should be focused towards the policing of communities with the use of CCTV, electronic tagging and alarms and invest less in the rehabilitation of offenders. The findings of Martinson were opposed by a number of academic staff with an example of Ross Gendreau in 1979. Finally, Martinson pointed another important variable to the negative findings which was the poor research methodologies. As every finding that is exhibited by a research, the findings of Martinson had a number of critics (Hollin, 1999). As the 1980s and 1990s were merged, a number of meta-analytic studies were published and started to show what actually worked in the process of reducing re-offending. These statistical techniques were utilized in order to review the results of a great number of primary studies and allowed the emergence of overall trends in the accumulated data. Such trends were analysed by A. Andrews and J. Bonta (Andrews and Bonta, 2010) who claimed that the findings of Martinson and his colleagues were inconclusive as they were rushed into publicity without thorough research. Due to this significant claim, Martinson and his colleagues were deemed unreliable. In the beginning, Andrews and Bonta claimed that negative results in the studies were accepted instantly and almost with no question. Moreover, they supported the idea that the way the research was carried out was to mainly stress any supporting researches to treatment by using pseudoscientific techniques such as stressing the criterion problem, discounting the underlying theory and contaminating the treatment. This group of techniques were described under the general term Treatment Destruction (Gottfredson, 1979  ) . Furthermore, Andrews and Banta claimed that Martinson and his colleagues modified the measurements to their advantage and as a result they published findings that were unreliable. According to Andrews and Bonta, there were also errors in the conceptualization of the research as a whole which meant that measurements were unreliable and is a possibility that it caused the absence of positive results. To sum up, everything that was mentioned in the course of this chapter is a review upon the development of rehabilitation until the end of the 1990s. Martinson and his colleagues presented the results of their research which specified that the effects of rehabilitation are absent and dictated that the justice system should introduce a model of penalising that would treat the offenders with severity that would vary depending on their offence. On the other hand, there were a number of opposed critics that accused them for being unreliable during the process of conducting their research and modifying the variables to their advantage. Chapter 3 Current Rehabilitation System In the UK 3. Current rehabilitation system in the UK In this chapter are going to be provided the modifications and additions that were made to the rehabilitation system since the beginning of the 2000s and the way they formed the system as we know it nowadays. 3.1 Prison Rules The Prison Rules of 1999 essentially were a replacement of the rules of 1964 and conducted changes to the way of managing prisons which include the treatment of prisoners, the powers and duties of boards of visitors and the conduct of prison officers. This chapter will mainly focus on the prison rules that affect the prisoners and not the visitors or any other mentions. The new rules of 1999 are a set of changes to previous rules in order to bring them to modern standards. The prison rule 32 is an addition to the rule 29 of the 1964 rules which was made in order to provide the distance learning ability to the prisoners as the 1964 rule was only mentioning in-prison learning programmes. Additionally, under the rule 41 every inmate search should not be placed under the sight of a person of the opposite search. Moreover, the newly specified rule 51, dictated that any irregularities during a visit such as the providing of drugs and articles to the prisoners, should be punished and the te rm in any way offends against good order and discipline has been revoked. Finally, the rule 55 commanded that additional punishment shall not be added to a caution and 14 days of cellular confinement is the maximum days of a total award. Additionally, the Secretary of State has been given the power to order a specific set of guidelines for the punishment of a prisoner. To conclude, according to Iain Crow the rule 2 of the prison rules states that At all times the treatment of prisoners shall be such as to encourage their self-respect and a sense of personal responsibility (Crow, 2001). 3.2 Social Exclusion Unit Report of 2002 As it was mentioned above, the target of rehabilitation is to reduce re-offending. Another report that played an important role to the modification of the justice system was the Social Exclusion Unit Report which was introduced in order to reduce the increasing rates of re-offending by ex-convicts and was commissioned by the Government in order to investigate what steps should be followed as to halt offending repetition. It also dictated that efforts for the rehabilitation of prisoners should be doubled in order to introduce them back to society effectively and it would be done by prison sentences not being made only to punish but also provide the convicts with the opportunity to reduce the chance of re-offending. Moreover, the Unit Report of 2002 stated that offenders are repeating offences because the prison sentences were not as effective as they should be. A number of reasons for the increment of reconviction rates during the 1990s included the erosion to the system of support for short-term prisoners post-release, the changes to the prisoners benefit rules and the steep growth in areas that are defined by social exclusion such as inequality, child poverty and drug use. The report also introduced a series of key factors that affect the re-offending rates which are the mental and physical welfare, the education and employment of prisoners, the misuse of addictive substances (i.e. alcohol, drugs), the family networks and the life skills and financial support of prisoners. The Social Exclusion Unit Report of 2002 not only stated the factors that cause the rise in re-offending rates but also made a number of recommendations which are the following: A long-term National Rehabilitation Strategy should be introduced in order to approach rehabilitation and ultimately reduce re-offending. Imprisonment should be applied only where necessary. Improvements to diversion schemes have to be made in-court in order to identify if an offender is mentally ill and specific actions should then be carried out such as mental health care. Additionally, there should be doubt over the overall value of short-term prison sentences as they might have negative effects recrudesce due to the lack of supervision after custody. Housing and financial needs of newly released prisoners should be taken into account a national level. Furthermore, in order to further improve the accessibility to healthcare, housing, employment and education, a system for effective resettlement should be designed. An increase in the variety of programmes that are available in the community is needed, as it will help with a number of aspects of the ex-prisoners such as mental health programmes, drug and alcohol treatment and education. Each ex-prisoner should be treated in accordance to their circumstances and as a result if would offer a much improved effect to the rehabilitation of the ex-prisoners as each programme will be focused on their needs. These programmes will include a series of activities and support that will be devised by a case manager who will cover the entire sentence of the prisoner, during and after his or her imprisonment. In conclusion, the Social Exclusion Unit Report of 2002 stated a lot of problems in the rehabilitation progress that was used until that time but also recommended key objectives that had to be fulfilled in order to improve the rehabilitation system and significantly reduce the re-offending rates for ex-prisoners and is best defined by the best way of reducing re-offending is to ensure that prisoners on their release have the ability to get into work and a home to go to. In the remainder of this report, we investigate the current levels of provision of training, education and employment opportunities within prison, and of resettlement arrangements after release. (Office, 2002) 3.3 The Carter Report of 2003 In March 2003 the Government authorized the businessman Patrick Carter in order to create an extensive review of the criminal justice system in England and Wales. The objective was to establish an effective system that would not only focus on reducing crime but also maintain the public confidence alongside being affordable. The Carter Report was released to public in December 2003 that concluded that the increased usage of imprisonment and probation during the past decade reflected the increased severity of the sentences for specific offences rather than an increase in the overall seriousness of crimes that were brought to justice or the growth of the number of offenders being caught and sentenced -both remaining widely constant. Moreover, the Carter Report stated that while imprisonment is vital in order to protect the public, by incapacitating dangerous and persistent offenders, the increased use of imprisonment and probation has only a limited effect on offences and the evidence -which prove that the severity of sentences is a major factor for preventing crimes- are also severely limited. Another problem in the process of convicting offenders was pointed out by the report which described the process too focused on offenders with no previous sentences and failed to get to grips with highly persistent offenders. Additionally, the report stated that there were a lot systemic failures in the use of interventions in order to reduce re-offending because they were ineffectively targeted. These failures that were highlighted were the fact that short-term offenders are not staying in the same place and as a result cant receive effective interventions which would reduce the chance of re-offending, the quality of the interventions that an offender is receiving varies greatly depending the prison establishment who is held and as the court often is not able to address the needs of the offender is being assigned with interventions that are not suited for his or her needs. The Carter Report alongside the problems -which stated that existed in the criminal justice system- it introduced a number of new approaches that should be followed in order to deal properly with offenders with the core points being: A National Offender Management Service (NOMS) should be established that would combine the functions of the present Prison and Probation Services and it should have two main core goals with the first being the punishment of offenders and the reduction of re-offending. It should be headed by a lone Chief Executive and based on evidence on what works in reducing re-offending and taking no account of whether the offender is sentenced with imprisonment or community service, it should be responsible for the successful management of the offenders sentence. A range of targeted and effective sentences should be created which will be enforced in robust way. Depending on the risk assessment of each offender, community punishments should become more intense and three levels of severity should be made available (Community Punishment, Intensive Supervision and Monitoring and Community Rehabilitation). Last but not least, community sentences for low-risk cases should be replaced with fines. Based on sentencing guidelines, which are informed by evidence of what works in reducing re-offending and makes effective use of the existing capacity, the judiciary should take up a new role in managing probation demand and prisons and as a result ensure a better consistency of punishment practice. As the findings of the Carter Report were very significant, the Government drew heavily on its recommendation that were focused on the improvement of the criminal justice system and the particular correctional services. As a result the Government started the implementation of the core proposals from the Carter Report into the Criminal Justice Act of 2003. Chapter 4 Offending Behaviour Programmes (OBPs) 4. Offending Behaviour Programmes (OBPs) A major part of Rehabilitation procedure is the establishing of Offending Behaviour Programmes that were designed in order to treat or improve the cognitive skills of the offenders and expect as an outcome the reducing of re-offending. These programmes were designed and offered to prisoners by the Prison Service during the early 90s. This chapter will include several models of these programmes, as they are being categorized according to the type of the offence, the condition of the offender along with his psychological condition, his age or any addictions. 4.1 Psychological and Behaviour Issues Grendons model is one of the most knows rehabilitation programmes in United Kingdom, as it was first established 40 years ago at the HMP of Grendon in Buckinghamshire. This programme aims to offer a treatment to offenders who suffer from psychopathy. At this point it has to be mentioned that the offenders volunteer to participate and they cannot be over 40. When the offenders are getting involved with Grendons system, are being divided into five groups, which are also known as therapeutic communities. Grendons model is still offers treatment to the offenders despite the lack of funding. Another behaviour programme that aims to provide treatment to offenders with psychological issues is Democratic TC, which has several similarities to that of Grendons. This programme is designed to support offenders who suffer from either personality disorder or emotional needs. In order to address any psychological and emotional agitation, Democratic TCs offer round-the-clock living-learning interventions for offenders whose primary criminogenic contingency factors should be targeted. In addition to the previous, it has to be stated that in several models, which are based on cognitive skills, some mentors of the interventions are offenders who have already completed the programme successfully. Such is Kainos Rehabilitation programme, which is also known as Challenge to change. Kainos is also a full time based model and aims to reduce criminogenic causes of offenders who have been judged as medium to high risked. Behavioural programmes are also targeting to reduce re-offending through teaching the criminals to control themselves by improving their self-management skills. Such model is Priestley One to One (Priestley OTO), which also aims to provide the offenders with the skill self-critic. In this case they are able to be responsible and understand the already committed crime and accept its consequences. It has to be mentioned that this programme is bounded only in community. Additionally, a widely known model is TSP, which stands for Thinking Skills Programme and works upon teach the offenders to achieve their goals without committing offences. In other words, it is based on self-management and personal coaching. Same target also has RESPOND, which is designed for prisoners who cannot work in groups, and offers the treatment individually. 4.2 Drug and Alcohol Misuse Eighty per cent of people that are being imprisoned have significant issues that are related to either drug or alcohol. In a number of prisons, drug tests were carried out during reception and eight out of ten prisoners were found having class A drugs in their system. Drug misusers are committing a major proportion of the acquisitive crimes as, in drug tests that were carried out during reception, a good per cent of the offenders that were prosecuted for offences such as burglary and shoplifting had heroin, cocaine or other opiates in their system. The underlying problem is that most of these people have never received any help about their drug problem. The statistics stated that there is a need for programmes that will hel

Behaviorism Essay -- Behavior Psychology Psychological Essays

Behaviorism Psychology is the science of behavior. Psychology is not the science of the mind. Behavior can be described and explained without making reference to mental events or to internal psychological processes. The sources of behavior are external (in the environment), not internal (in the mind). Behaviorism is a doctrine, or a set of doctrines, about human and nonhuman animal behavior. An important component of many psychological theories in the late nineteenth century were introspection, the study of the mind by analysis of one's own thought processes. It was in reaction to this trend that behaviorism arose, claiming that the causes of behavior need not be sought in the depths of the mind but could be observed in the immediate environment, in stimuli that elicited, reinforced, and punished certain responses. The explanation, in other words, lay in learning, the process whereby behavior changes in response to the environment. It wasn’t until the twentieth century that the scientist began to uncover the actual mechanism of learning, thereby laying the theoretical foundation for behaviorism. The contributions of four particular scientists are Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, Edward Lee Thorndike, and B.F. Skinner. A Russian neurophysiologist, named Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), found that if he consistently sounded a tone at the same time that he gave a dog food, the dog would eventually salivate to the sound of the tone alert. Through this research he discovered a basic mechanism of learning called the Conditioned Reflex. A Conditioned Reflex is if a neutral stimulus (i.e. the tone) is paired with a nonneutral stimulus (i.e. the food), the organism will eventually respond to the neutral stimulus as it does to the nonneutral stimulus. Perhaps the strongest application of classical conditioning involves emotion. Common experience and careful research both confirm that human emotion conditions very rapidly and easily. Particularly when the emotion is intensely felt or negative in direction, it will condition quickly. His findings raised the possibility that many of our responses, like those of the dogs, were the result of a simple learning process. In other words, our loves and hates, our tastes and distastes might be the consequences of nothing more mysterious that a conditioning process whereby various things in our environment became "linked" in our min... ...lly "spreads," or generalizes, to thinks that resemble the conditioned stimulus. An example to this is in Watson's experiment with little Albert's spontaneous fear of rabbits, and other animals that resembles a white rate. The opposite side of the coin from generalization is discrimination that is learning to distinguish among similar stimuli and to respond only to the appropriate one. People learn to discriminate between similar stimuli, between a friendly smile and a malicious grin. When one turns to have reinforcing consequences and the other does not. When I was a little boy I loved the ice cream man. There would be so much noise going up and down my block but I could always hear his music over all the noise. Shaping is a critical process to operant conditioning. Throughout this process there is a positive reinforcement of successive approximations. The basic assumptions of behaviorism are that psychology's task is to study behavior, or the responses an organism makes to the stimuli in its environment; that psychological research should be empirical, based on measurement; that behavior can be controlled and predicted, and that the major component of behavior is learning. Behaviorism Essay -- Behavior Psychology Psychological Essays Behaviorism Psychology is the science of behavior. Psychology is not the science of the mind. Behavior can be described and explained without making reference to mental events or to internal psychological processes. The sources of behavior are external (in the environment), not internal (in the mind). Behaviorism is a doctrine, or a set of doctrines, about human and nonhuman animal behavior. An important component of many psychological theories in the late nineteenth century were introspection, the study of the mind by analysis of one's own thought processes. It was in reaction to this trend that behaviorism arose, claiming that the causes of behavior need not be sought in the depths of the mind but could be observed in the immediate environment, in stimuli that elicited, reinforced, and punished certain responses. The explanation, in other words, lay in learning, the process whereby behavior changes in response to the environment. It wasn’t until the twentieth century that the scientist began to uncover the actual mechanism of learning, thereby laying the theoretical foundation for behaviorism. The contributions of four particular scientists are Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, Edward Lee Thorndike, and B.F. Skinner. A Russian neurophysiologist, named Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), found that if he consistently sounded a tone at the same time that he gave a dog food, the dog would eventually salivate to the sound of the tone alert. Through this research he discovered a basic mechanism of learning called the Conditioned Reflex. A Conditioned Reflex is if a neutral stimulus (i.e. the tone) is paired with a nonneutral stimulus (i.e. the food), the organism will eventually respond to the neutral stimulus as it does to the nonneutral stimulus. Perhaps the strongest application of classical conditioning involves emotion. Common experience and careful research both confirm that human emotion conditions very rapidly and easily. Particularly when the emotion is intensely felt or negative in direction, it will condition quickly. His findings raised the possibility that many of our responses, like those of the dogs, were the result of a simple learning process. In other words, our loves and hates, our tastes and distastes might be the consequences of nothing more mysterious that a conditioning process whereby various things in our environment became "linked" in our min... ...lly "spreads," or generalizes, to thinks that resemble the conditioned stimulus. An example to this is in Watson's experiment with little Albert's spontaneous fear of rabbits, and other animals that resembles a white rate. The opposite side of the coin from generalization is discrimination that is learning to distinguish among similar stimuli and to respond only to the appropriate one. People learn to discriminate between similar stimuli, between a friendly smile and a malicious grin. When one turns to have reinforcing consequences and the other does not. When I was a little boy I loved the ice cream man. There would be so much noise going up and down my block but I could always hear his music over all the noise. Shaping is a critical process to operant conditioning. Throughout this process there is a positive reinforcement of successive approximations. The basic assumptions of behaviorism are that psychology's task is to study behavior, or the responses an organism makes to the stimuli in its environment; that psychological research should be empirical, based on measurement; that behavior can be controlled and predicted, and that the major component of behavior is learning.